Arguments Opposed to the Resolution

Quick Link to Arguments in Support of the Resolution

We believe our opponents have greatly underestimated the potential impact of the internet and other communications technologies on the nature of government. They argue that government will remain essentially the same, with perhaps some improvements in information dissemination. We argue that information technology will dramatically change what people expect from their governments (much as it has in the private sector), and this phenomenon will be a driving factor behind the development of truly transformative e-government.

Our opponents appear to ignore (or take for granted) the vast improvements that have already taken place within the government’s internal information infrastructure and in the general availability and accessibility of information and services to the public.

It is true that there are some significant problems that will need to be addressed in order to achieve efficient and effective e-government, but the existence of such problems – many of which are not unique to government e-development – are hardly proof positive that they cannot be solved.

The very fact that the problems are being recognized and analyzed demonstrates that e-government efforts have moved beyond the initial “hype” stage and have reached the necessary realization that truly transformative e-government can only be achieved through a significant change in the way government conceives of itself and its relationship with the public. But this is exactly what the public will increasingly demand as online technology becomes more accessible and integral to daily life.

The Promise of e-Government

The opposition portrays e-government as primarily a new way to conduct business as usual. Admittedly, e-government has not yet radically changed our world. Its potential for doing so is substantial, however, as it opens up new avenues for both the elected and the electorate to increase their role in the democratic process.

As one report phrases the current state:

"So far the dominant trend amongst parliamentarians and in parliaments in adapting to the internet has been a relatively limited modernisation approach, largely trying to maintain existing practices and relations but in new formats.... Yet, in the longer term, the possible failure of this modernisation without democratisation approach provides opportunities for innovators. We would suggest that the potential remains ... for ICTs to provide:

1. More continuous representation - As our survey confirmed, most people have very little attachment to the political system apart from casting a vote every few years. ICTs offer a means to engage people at least directly in debate and dialogue on a more regularised basis.
2. More informed policymakers - Most policy consultations are conducted with the usual suspects on a relatively narrow range of interests. Yet ... within [MPs'] own constituencies there are untapped polic experts who have ground level experience of government policy. The development of online networks of expertise may be one way of reaching such expertise.
3. A more informed public - The emergence of an online third force sector providing greater information on parliament and its representatives may assist the public's knowledge or at least stimulate some public debate about the role of parliaments and representatives."

ESRC Final Report on Representation in the Internet Age, p. 10.

There are many ways in which e-government can produce dramatic changes in the way our government operates. For purposes of this debate, we will focus on three specific arenas in which e-government initiatives promise change: improving the government's efficiency and effectiveness in forming policy and delivering services, increasing transparency to ensure accountability, and enabling a greater public role in the processes of governance. Each of these arenas requires more than "business as usual" from the government, demanding an understanding of the possibilities enabled by ICTs and a willingness to reconceptualize the nature of government.

Fulfilling these promises will require governments to utilize the Internet to collaborate meaningfully with private parties and to take a more hands-on role in ensuring universal access to the benefits of the information age.

Improving Efficiency and Effectiveness

Perhaps the most straightforward form of e-government is the use of information and communication technologies to improve the delivery of services to citizens or the efficiency of internal governmental processes. Existing examples of this abound; every state government uses automated methods to track payroll, monitor tax revenues, and the like.

In some cases, these improvements are merely incremental, and do not suggest a radical shift in the role of government. In other instances, the Internet and other technologies have the potential to radically reduce or even eliminate the role of the government in certain affairs, which can dramatically change incentives. Internet voter registration and e-voting, while not without its own concerns, has the strong likelihood of increasing voter "turnout." Online registrations for small businesses, allowing automatic approval without time-consuming trips to deal with paperwork, make independent operators far more self-sufficient.

Information technology can promote effectiveness in methods that extend well beyond increased efficiency stemming from faster communications. The NYPD have embraced ICT for sharing information between departments and boroughs and for effectively utilizing the data that is collected. [1]

We believe that the "customers" of e-government services will impact efficiency in a way similar to the effect seen in the private sector. As more/better/faster services become available, customers begin expecting that level of service -- and government will either have to meet those expectations, or explain why it has not done so. Agencies that decline to move forward with improved e-government services voluntarily will inevitably face mounting pressure to do so. Administrative agencies are not subject to the direct political pressure faced by the elected branches, but they do face managerial pressures from the Executive and budget pressures from the Legislative -- and will therefore ultimately have to respond to the demands of their users.

Increasing Transparency

Another goal of e-government is to increase transparency in government by exposing far more information about internal deliberations, voting patterns, and consequences of government activity to the public. This transparency can be generated within government, by making the text or even podcasts of internal debates available on the Internet; it can come from without, as organizations collaborate with the public to identify, post, and comment on information about government members and actions. In the latter sense, the press serves as a model example for exposing government corruption, excess, and progress; ICTs allow "citizen journalists" to multiply the resources dedicated to investigating and improving government.

The transformative effects of "e-government" in this sense are less governmental and more political. The goal of transparency is to ensure that politicians are accountable to their constituents for their actions, to reveal the extent to which special interests and other organized groups influence legislation, and to increase public trust in democracy and the government. There are many ongoing projects that seek to increase transparency in government at many levels.

The use of ICT can further impact the way in which legislation is written and adopted. A recent article in Slate about changes "slipped into" the reauthorization of the USA PATRIOT Act highlights the need for accountability within government as well as to the public. Simple e-Government initiatives such as the use of electronic documents and version control in legislative documents could prevent this sort of behavior by automatically notifying interested legislators of changes to draft versions of a proposed bill, providing transparency within government as well as to citizens.

Government processes can also address accountability deficits in ways that are less apparent. In particular, the recordkeeping implicit in electronic dialogues and documents can eliminate the possibility of "anonymous" alterations to proposed legislation, prevents late alterations to major legislation from passing through without notice, and generally imposes a degree of accountability on any alteration to proposed legislation. The lack of anonymity within legislative proceedings improves both internal efficiency and accountability by identifying the originators of specific changes to legislation.

Promoting Citizen Involvement

At the simplest level, e-government has the possibility of increasing citizen engagement in politics simply by providing improved delivery of government services and increased transparency and accountability. By ensuring that government is in fact responsive to the needs of its citizens, e-government has the potential to alter the attitude of citizens towards government and thus encourage civic involvement.

The potential for civic involvement through e-government extends far deeper, however. By facilitating various forms of communication between members of government and private citizens, e-government enables citizens to become directly involved in government efforts, by commenting on or suggesting changes to proposed legislation or by otherwise participating in the act of policymaking and service delivery itself.

For example, many of the sections of They Work For You permit user responses to government debates or statements. Furthermore, users are polled as to whether the official government response to a written question provides a satisfactory answer, suggesting a tool by which citizens can identify and chastise vague answers. [2] On a more formal level, the Family Courts Forum site was set up explicitly to solicit public input on the topic of "openness and privacy in the family courts."

The challenge here is twofold. First, e-government must encourage citizens to be more active in contributing to the democratic dialogue. Second, e-government must ensure that the government actually considers and acts upon input received directly from citizens. This is the ultimate goal of e-government in many respects, but it also presents the greatest challenges. Given the evidence that e-government is beginning to function in other domains, there is reason for optimism that it will expend in this direction over time.

Engaging with Private Parties

Critics of e-government note that, to date, the most radical "e-government" initiatives have been undertaken by third parties, primarily non-profit organizations. This is true. It also illustrates one potential form of e-government: leveraging the collaborative power of the Internet to jointly produce public goods with private parties. Firms such as Google have expressed strong interest in working with governments to make information and government services available on the Internet.

Possibilities for collaboration exist at all potential levels of e-government. The IRS, for example, provides mechanisms for third party software developers to create e-filing tools, enabling a far more efficient mechanism for tax preparation and submission. OpenCongress, a private initiative to promote government transparency, relies on government-generated data. The Community Patent Project involves private parties in the traditionally internal process of granting patents.

Part of good e-government, then, is determining how best to use the Internet to collaborate with private parties, while ensuring that such collaborations serve public ends (such as the IRS's mandate that private software developers offer free online filing for low-income taxpayers). In some cases, "outsourcing" these functions is merely a utilitarian choice based on the efficiency of private enterprise; in other situations, particularly those involving transparency, making data available in raw form rather than contextualizing it may be necessary for the effort to achieve legitmacy rather than being subject to internal manipulation.

Universal Access

The Internet is a tremendous tool for commercial and personal growth. We suggest that it is becoming an important aspect of civic involvement as well. A major part of e-government is not merely in generating content and services available online but in acting to ensure the optimal growth and utilization of the Internet and its accessibility to all citizens.

Policy issues concerning Internet connectivity, such as "last-mile" access and the "net neutrality" debate, require a deeper understanding of the potential of the Internet itself, particularly the manner in which it challenges existing paradigms (in particular, consider the works of Professors Benkler and von Hippel suggesting that the Internet can radically alter existing commercial paradigms). Actually reaping the benefits of e-government initiatives requires making policy decisions that encourage universal access to such initiatives.

Governments face different challenges in delivering access to citizens. Remote rural areas remain the greatest challenge, but there are several proposed models of delivering access in such locations, ranging from Broadband over Power Lines to "Wi-Fi buses"; e-government requires an evaluation of innovative solutions like these to provide greater access to all citizens. Likewise, the intensity of ongoing debates over Internet regulation and governance suggest that decisions in these arenas may have long-term impacts on the development of the Internet and thus on society as a whole.

Challenges to e-Government

Participation

As with any democratic endeavor, e-government will be successful only if all interested parties buy in to its tenets. The challenge of forming both an informed, active civil society and a responsive, accountable government is a perpetual issue, and e-government projects that fail to provide sufficient incentives for participation are unlikely to succeed.

Fortunately, e-government has a somewhat unique set of incentives to offer. For citizens, the chance to be truly informed and involved in the political system has the potential to counteract apathy and disconnectedness. For politicians, the communicative opportunities of the Internet and other ICTs provide an invaluable, and possibly essential, tool to maintain a connection with their constituents in any pursuit of (re)election. The key to effective e-government is to channel all of these impulses to ensure that all parties are willing to participate in the project at hand.

As the Digital Dialogues interim report notes: "Scepticism amongst the public about the value of engagement in the policy process can be addressed as it begins by clearly setting out the potential for influence over outcomes. This must be matched by commitment to feedback processes at the end of an engagement exercise."

Access

The second, and more specific, challenge to e-government is that it reinforces existing political and social divides by providing benefits only to a select group. Those with the technical savvy and political interest to thoroughly engage in e-government activities are allegedly able to further their own political agenda, while those who lack access to the necessary resources are further disenfranchised.

It is worth noting that these issues are hardly unique to e-government or even to government in general. The solution to a disparity in access to modern communication technologies is to remedy the disparity. Digital democracy requires a digital electorate; that the marked disparity in wealth present in the current world limits the benefits of e-government does not demonstrate that those benefits do not exist and cannot be apportioned in a reasonable fashion if and when distributive solutions are found.

ICT has, in many instances, the potential to decrease rather than increase disparities in access to information. By understanding the means by which information is actually distributed to the public - whether via telephone, the Internet, text messages, or the printed press - interested persons can determine how best to make information available to everyone. In some instances, email with local newspapers may be more efficient than a general website; in others, content suited to distribution via cell phone may be practical where traditional websites are not. This is not to say that ICT can solve every problem of access to information, but it can address many if used creatively. See, for example, Citizen Calling, a pilot program testing the effectiveness of using cell phones and text messaging to connect young people with the UK Parliament.

Moreover, many of the benefits of e-government are not directly tied to continuous universal access. Increasing governmental transparency and enhanced delivery of services should benefit all citizens, not merely those with Internet access. Even mechanisms for increased citizen participation in government can be utilized to benefit a broad range of citizens if the input received is considered by elected representatives on the basis of its impact on the nation as a whole; online polls or discussion boards pose no particular threat so long as the demographics of participants are known and taken into account.

Structure

As the supporters of the Resolution note, e-government is not a panacea that will magically fix government. E-government is, at best, a tool that enables dramatic and even transformative improvements in the processes of governance and democracy; simply moving from a paper-based world to a computer-based world in no way ensures these improvements. In fact, ICT-based initiatives can simply entrench bureacracies further, reducing or even eliminating existing means of access and accountability; they can be used as another outlet for government-controlled content rather than accurate, transparent information; they can even be used as a tool for surveillance and monitoring rather than dialogue between citizens and government.

These concerns do not suggest that e-government is pointless, or that its effects are limited because it can only be deployed and utilized in situations where governance and democracy already work well. Rathern, as Patrick Dunleavy and Helen Margetts suggest, the challenge for e-government advocates is to "steer a delicate path between utopian and dystopian pathways to maximize the benefits of the information age." [3] Effective e-government must be tied to specific goals of increasing efficiency, improving transparency, and enhancing communications; moreover, the projects must be enacted within the context of the existing governmental regime, or the government itself must be smoothly adjusted to be better positioned to take advantage of the possibilities of e-government.

It is worth noting that democratic government does not exist in a vacuum and is not the sole body interested in e-government. The Hansard Society and the Sunlight Foundation provide two examples of non-governmental entities investing considerable effort into researching and advocating for e-government. As long as government in a given country is in practice democratic, external and internal pressures have the potential to force institutional change to make e-government feasible.

Scale

A final criticism of e-government is scale. Many of the notable successes in e-government to date have occurred on a relatively small scale, in smaller nations such as Estonia or South Korea or in cities and towns. Large-scale e-government initiatives, particularly those encouraging greater citizen participation, may face different challenges than the same initiative might face on a smaller scale, such as the difficulty of processing a substantially greater amount of citizen input. This suggests that e-government may not be transformative at all but may merely reflect an incremental change in the inherently more direct modus of local governments.

There are several possible responses to this criticism. First, it strikes too broadly: even if some e-government initiatives are difficult to scale up, it does not follow that all such initiatives are. In fact, in many cases increasing the scale may increase the effectiveness of e-government initiatives intended to promote transparency and efficiency, since these traits are most easily lost at higher levels.

More to the point, some initiatives are "difficult" to scale to larger governments because larger governments are locked into a preconceived model of citizen interaction. Federal agencies are accustomed to interacting with large public interest groups through notice-and-comment rulemaking; using the same mechanism to interact with individual citizen input may well not be efficient, but it does not justify rejecting the entire idea of individual input. Instead, consideration needs to be given to whether mechanisms such as reputation systems can be refined to enable citizen input in a manner that is usable by the agency (and, of course, are not susceptible to gaming).

At a minimum, this suggests that e-government requires careful analysis of the role that scale plays in the success of e-government initiatives; the national government may not be able to adopt every innovation from local governments, but needs to assess its portability to the federal realm.

e-Government Success Stories

Although there have been some disappointing experiments in e-government, even mistakes provide valuable information for the development of successful "e-Government 2.0" programs. Some countries have already taken advantage of the growing knowledge about e-government best practices to develop highly innovative systems -- which have already changed the way citizens of these countries interact with their government. Such programs provide a hint of the profound changes e-government will inevitably bring about in the future. Below, we provide an overview of just few of such programs.

South Korea

South Korea's e-government program ranked first in the 2006 Global E-Government Report based on a survey of conducted by The Center for Public Policy at Brown. [4]. The study found that the South Korean program had an "impressive level of organization and offer a wealth of information and services," and that it "offers an abundance of features while remaining user-friendly for its visitors." [5]

Online Services

The main government portal, for example, offers easy access to over 500 government services fully executable online. Other departmental pages offer a wide range of e-services, from paying taxes to searching for lost relatives in North Korea.

For Citizens

• Civil services including various permits/authorizations and certificates
• Information services to search for legislative/administrative notices and relevant laws
• Payment services including tax refunds and social welfare payments
• Opportunity to participate in government administration by requesting public hearings and casting electronic votes.

For Businesses

• Civil services including various permits/authorizations, formal objections, diverse reports and complaints.
• Electronic transaction services including procurements, bids and so on
• Payment services for various taxes and public charges
• Opportunity to participate in government administration by requesting public hearings and casting electronic votes.

Government-to-Government

• Information sharing among agencies in terms of documents and knowledge management.
• Exchange of opinions among agencies by distribution electronic documents
• Support for electronic approval and video conferencing for efficient decision-making
• Database sharing among agencies to enhance the efficiency of work procedures

Custom Experience

Highly customizable, with a majority allowing the user to manage his or her own activities. In addition, most sites offer PDA or wireless access, and nearly all allow visitors to sign up for e-mail updates.

Interactive Features

Interactive features available for users – virtually every site contains a prominent guestbook or forum as well as the option to petition the particular department.

Bridging the Digital Divide

The South Korean government, recognizing the sharp digital (and economic) divide between its urban and rural areas, launched the Information Network Village project in 2001. (A promotional video - in English - is available here.)

The project's goal is to "reduce the digital divide between rural and urban regions by increasing availability of e-government services and to increase income level of local residents by boosting regional economy through e-commerce, which eventually leads to the improvement of the quality of life in rural communities."

So far, the project has reached a total of 233,540 local residents in 79,279 households in 280 villages over the course of four development "stages" (each stage integrates a new group of villages into the Information Network Village project)[6].

Estonia

Estonia has embraced the concept of e-Government at many levels, recognizing the vast potential that the Internet and other forms of technology offer in improving the functionality of government and increasing political accountability and citizen participation at multiple levels.

• The State Web Center is a repository for links to the official web sites of various governmental institutions as well as "almost all the official documents" produced by the government.

• The Kodanikuportaal (Citizen’s Portal) allows Estonian citizens to enter and confirm data in the various national databases, fill out application forms, and sign and send documents, allowing government to operate more efficiently and more accurately.

• The Teabeportaal (Information Portal) provides information about government services, ranging from planned power outages to contact information for a wide range of governmental entities.

• The Estonian Cabinet has committed to paperless sessions using a web-based document system, increasing efficiency and making the process of legislative alteration far more transparent. Furthermore, Cabinet votes are conducted electronically, allowing members not physically present to vote on any issue. [7]

• Täna Otsustan Mina ("I Decide Today") is a model for community participation in the legislative process. Draft bills and amendments are placed on the forum and citizens are permitted to post comments, questions, and suggestions. Ideas that gain substantial support will be reviewed by competent bodies. According to the government website, "[a]pproximately 5% of all ideas are used as amendments to bills." [8]

• The E-Governance Academy is "a non-governmental, non-profit organisation, founded for the creation and transfer of knowledge concerning e-governance, e-democracy and the development of civil society."

Tampere, Finland

"The City of Tampere in Finland has become internationally known for its e-government activities." [9] Tampere's embrace of Internet technologies such as online forums as a supplement to traditional forms of interaction between citizens and government is admirable in itself, but what stands out is its embrace of innovative uses of technology to alter the relationship between citizens and government and its dedication to ensuring access to all of its citizens.

"Real World SimCity(tm)"

One of Tampere's successful e-government initiatives was a "real world SimCity" which encouraged citizens to try their hand at urban planning to accommodate an anticipated influx of immigrants. Citizen-players used multimedia technologies to simulate the effects of locating the immigrants in various locations within the town, forcing players to consider and balance the effects of a given plan on traffic, local parks, tax revenue, and various other factors. City of Tampere: Turning Civic Participation into Reality via the Internet (Unfortunately, the town planning game appears to be no longer available.)

This effort succeeded on multiple levels. 330 planning suggestions were submitted to the government, allowing the planning commission to evaluate both the concrete suggestions as alternatives and to use the suggestions to ascertain the importance that citizens placed on relevant factors such as park space and traffic. Citizens, meanwhile, became more connected with the government, appreciating the complexities and tradeoffs involved in urban planning in a manner difficult to communicate with offline planning maps.

Expanding Access

Tampere has also focused on expanding access to Internet services. There are two local initiatives focused on ensuring maximum access for all residents:

• The "Netti-Nysse" ("Internet Bus") is an effort to support Tampere residents attempting to get online. The Netti-Nysse is essentially a mobile Internet training center which is scheduled by small groups for a set of four informal training sessions on computers and the Internet. It focuses primarily on underserved populations, demonstrating the material available on the Internet and providing information about free access points and continuing training throughout the town.

• eTupa is a company designed to support Tampere's growing base of Internet users. It provides consulting services for citizens considering the purchase of a PC, making recommendations about the most suitable computer for the person's needs. It also provides technical support, including on-site support. eTupa was founded as a government-subsidized entity and has since transitioned into a fully private enterprise, though most services except hardware repair and on-site assistance remain free.

Long-Term Goals

"Supporting people’s computer literacy plays an essential part in building the information society but it is still not enough. Giving people meaningful content and the opportunities to use computers are also needed. In Tampere, the information society is being developed through wide and good cooperation thanks to the eTampere project.

"What eTampere and Netti-Nysse are aiming at, is mostly evoking discussion, creating co-operation and showing the need for novel practices in an inclusive information society. It is our goal to help people to see the possibilities and then make their own choices concerning their role in the information society." [10]

The Potential of e-Government

In addition to the demonstrated success above, there are a vast number of new initiatives that expand e-Government in many different directions. The following lists just a few current efforts to utilize ICT to improve government.

Improving Efficiency and Effectiveness

Many of the early shortcomings of government efforts resulted from a lack of coordination and strategic planning. Governments seeking to make improvements have been developing integrated e-government programs, similar to the South Korean model, to provide information and services useful to the public.

"Transformational Government" Initiative in the UK

Recognizing that a strategic technology plan was necessary for the United Kingdom to implement technology "decisively and effectively" across government to meet its national objectives, Prime Minister Tony Blair commissioned the development of a unified e-government strategy for the UK: Transformational Government -- Enabled by Technology "to seize the opportunity provided by technology to transform the business of government." The project was initiated in 2005.

Index of Tranformational Government Program Information

Strategy

A formal Strategic Plan was released in July 2005.

In particular, the strategy was directed to provide overall technology leadership in three key areas:

1. The transformation of public services for the benefit of citizens, businesses, taxpayers and front-line staff.
2. The efficiency of the corporate services and infrastructure of government organisations, thus freeing resources for the front-line.
3. The steps necessary to achieve the effective delivery of technology for government.

The strategic plan required three key transformations:

1. Services enabled by IT must be designed around the citizen or business, not the provider, and provided through modern, co-ordinated delivery channels. This will improve the customer experience, achieve better policy outcomes, reduce paperwork burdens and improve efficiency by reducing duplication and routine processing, leveraging delivery capacity and streamlining processes.
2. Government must move to a shared services culture - in the front-office, in the back-office, in information and in infrastructure - and release efficiencies by standardisation, simplification and sharing.
3. There must be broadening and deepening of government's professionalism in terms of the planning, delivery, management, skills and governance of IT enabled change. This will result in more successful outcomes; fewer costly delivery failures; and increased confidence by citizens and politicians in the delivery of change by the public services.

Implementation Plan

In March 2006, the Cabinet office released the Transformational Government Implementation Plan.

At the same time project released a Timetable for Change to the public, detailing when planned changes would be implemented.

Progress So Far

• Centralized government web presence at DirectGov

Public Response

The government invited public response and criticism to the strategy and implementation plan. A summary, and copies of the individual responses received are available here.

Europe's Information Society

The European Union's Information Society is a government body tasked with coordinating the e-government efforts of EU member nations, with an eye toward providing integrated services where possible.

U.S. Government Efforts

Coordinating Planning Efforts

• President's E-Government Initiative coordinated through OMB

• GSA's eStrategy.gov website provides guidance to help promote, implement and manage E-Government initiatives and programs at federal, state and local levels of government. The overall objective is to improve citizen, intergovernmental, and business access to E-Government information and services.

• Council of Federal CIOs

Coordinating Web Presence

USA.gov is a single portal that collects many of the web-based services and e-Government initiatives operated by the federal government. By bringing together a wide range of online services and modes of communicating with government, USA.gov hope to "make[] it easy for the public to get U.S. government information and services on the web. USA.gov also serves as the catalyst for a growing electronic government." [11]

Value Added Functionality

As our oponents note, much of what can currently be done on government web sites is merely an online version of transactions that previously took place offline. But in many cases, the online medium may offer distinct advantages over traditional methods -- particularly in cases where citizens are particupateing in a dialog with government agencies. [insert agency notice and comment material -- CCR]

State and Local Governments

The State of Michigan, among others, utilizes the web to simplify the process of starting a new business. A government website allows a business to obtain a tax registration online, access other necessary forms, and obtain information about programs and initiatives designed to encourage entrepreneurship. [12] A criticism of Massachusetts for failing to implement such a program can be found here.

Massachusetts' web site includes a link for online services including information and links related to education, housing, business, tax, and many other government services of interest to the public.

Increasing Transparency

Because citizens cannot depend on the government alone to provide sufficient transparency -- particularly those directly impacted by electoral politics -- private efforts to promote easy access to information will play a critical role in the development of e-Government. This "watchdog" role has traditionally served primarily by the institutional press, which will continue to play a crucial role for most citizens, but as information becomes more widely available to all, its role will be to integrate available information, rather than to serve as a gatekeeper of information that is not widely available. Alternately, the role of integrating and distributing information might be accomplished by the public at large, or even by the government itself. [13]

Sunlight Foundation

The Sunlight Foundation was founded in January 2006 with the goal of using the revolutionary power of the Internet and new information technology to enable citizens to learn more about what Congress and their elected representatives are doing, and thus help reduce corruption, ensure greater transparency and accountability by government, and foster public trust in the vital institutions of democracy. Sunlight Foundations efforts are entirely focused on the use of "technology and the power of the Internet" to help citizens, journalists and bloggers "be their own best watchdogs, both by improving access to existing information and digitizing new information, and by creating new tools and websites to enable all of us to pool our intelligence in new, and yet to be imagined, ways."

The Sunlight Foundation sponsors a wide range of projects that are designed to encourage civic involvement in monitoring government activity. Some examples of these projects include:

• Congresspedia: Congresspedia bills itself as "the 'citizen's encyclopedia on Congress' that anyone can edit." As the name suggests, it hopes to duplicate the success of Wikipedia in the realm of politics, encouraging public contributions to articles about members of Congress, draft legislation, and other political activity.

• The Congressional Web Site Investigation Project enlisted "citizen journalists" to evaluate the methods by which members of Congress are using their personal web sites to connect with their constituents and further the Foundation goals of transparency and accountability. The project has compiled submissions concerning these web sites and anticipates releasing its findings in the next 10 days.

• The Punch Clock Campaign is designed to encourage current and potential members of Congress to post their daily schedules on the Internet to allow constituents to observe how their elected representatives spend their time and energy, and to better understand what elected representatives actually do when Congress is not in session.

• OpenCongress.org is a resource that combines official government information with news and blog coverage to provide in-depth information about the quotidian happenings in Congress. It aims to increase transparency by organizing information about pending bills, providing links to commentary, and enable citizens to become better informed and thus more involved in governance. The future plans for OpenCongress.org are more ambitious: it hopes to provide a forum for collaborative public commentary, analysis, and activity concerning pending litigation, encouraging citizens to become involved not only in electoral politics but in policymaking itself.

Transparancy Grants

Transparancy Grants provide financial support to enhance independant efforts such as:

• MAPLight.org, which was founded to illuminate the connection between campaign contributions and voting records in the California legislature. The project correlates publicly available information on bills and legislative voting records with political contributions. The online database is searchable by individual legislator, interest group, subject and by bill number. In December 2006, MapLight received a Transparency Grant that will help the organization create a beta version of their database to correlate information on federal legislators. The new database is expected to be available in April 2007.

• Citizens for Responsibility and Ethics in Washington (CREW) to fund the launch of its "Open Community Open Document Review System." CREW had already developed a demonstration version of an online reviewing process that is a really cool tool. It lets anyone review, tag and comment on any of the thousands of pages of documents that CREW has in their possession. (CREW has thousands of pages of government records as a result of their thorough and repeated FOIA requests.) Our grant will help them build a massive publicly searchable database of every document they receive -- a database put together by citizen journalists. Beta version will be available in late March 2007.

• National Institute on Money in State Politics to continue the development and implementation of their initial Web Service Application Program Interface (API), to conduct extensive outreach to ensure its adoption later in this year, and to develop several custom APIs for journalists and/or academics.

• Center for Citizen Media to develop an Election Year Demonstration Project for citizen journalism in one Congressional district. CCM will oversee the creation of a website that will seek to cover everything that can possibly be reported on a Congressional election, with an emphasis on drawing on the talents and ideas of local citizen reporters. The site will include in-depth biographical and political information on candidates, audio and video archives, campaign finance profiles, first-person reports, links to articles, etc. This project is designed to serve as a model for possible nationwide implementation in hundreds of districts in 2008.

• New York University's NewAssignment.Net Project, a non-profit site that is working to foster journalistic innovation by showing that open collaboration over the Internet among traditional reporters, editors and large groups of reader-reporters can produce high-quality work that serves the public interest, holds up under scrutiny, and builds trust. This project is an experiment in networked journalism, exploring how to blend the experience of veteran journalists with the engagement of passionate amateurs to produce work that neither could manage alone.

Other Projects

• They Work For You is "a non-partisan website run by a charity which aims to make it easy for people to keep tabs on their elected and unelected representatives in Parliament, and other assemblies." The website serves as a repository for information about the UK Parliament, including information about the stances and voting records of sitting members.

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Promoting Citizen Involvement

Sunlight Network

The Sunlight Network is a sister organization to the Sunlight Foundation, which was founded in January, 2006 to strengthen the relationship between lawmakers and the people they represent through transparency, technology, and local communities.

The Sunlight Network directly supports small projects, runs national campaigns, and provides a social networking hub where people who want to create change can meet. It is committed to supporting citizen initiatives, local community organizations, and the growing network of people who believe their elected officials should be more open and responsive to their constituents. We are experimental, irreverent, and especally (but not exclusively) interested in the ways that technology and the networked public sphere can nurture the already developing democratic movement in our country.

The Sunlight Network exists to:

• Mobilize real political muscle behind calls for reform, to help Congress change its habits.
• Provide a means for people to have direct access to power. We will constantly be experimenting with tools and campaigns to make it easier for people to meaningfully and positively affect their representative’s behavior.
• Offer a model for other nonprofits that have gotten used to top-down control within their organizations. We hope to learn, through trial and error, how best to enable the extraordinary latent power of citizens within a public organization.

Examples of programs sponsored by the Sunlight Network include:

• Congress in 30 Seconds encourages members of the public to create (using provided tools and video clips) a 30 second political commentary, inspired by MoveOn.org's "Bush in 30 Seconds" video.

Canada

The Canadian Pension Plan Online Consultation with Canadians "represented the first interactive website by a parliamentary committee in Canada and was regarded by all concerned as a success" in engaging citizens in the development of the Canadian Pension Plan Disability Program. "Those people involved in developing and implementing this initiative believe it was successful because it engaged citizens as partners in the decision making process." [14]

Europe

European Union eParticipation Case Studies [15]

The BBC's iCan project is aimed at individuals who are dissatisfied with mainstream politics but nonetheless care about political issues. It combines information provided by the BBC, information shared by users, and tools to encourage and enable civic involvement and coordinate activities with others.

YouGov is a rare commercial site focused on increasing communication between government and the public and fostering debate on political issues. For a given issue, the site permits users to submit long responses to open-ended questions; these responses are parsed by computers and mapped to a range of submitted responses, leading to a series of propositions. In a second phase, respondents can consider arguments for and against the various propositions prior to making a final poll response. In this manner, the site encourages deliberative engagement with the issue at hand rather than the quick responses that often plague e-polls.

U.S.

Regulations.gov publishes pending agency regulations and permits the public to submit comments directly. While this is merely an Internet implementation of the prior process of commentary, the increased ease of public participation in the process is remarkable.

E-government and New Models of Democracy

Most of the suggestions above involve ways in which e-government can improve an existing model of government that is built, at least in part, on the concept of representational democracy. Some advocates of e-government, however, suggest that ICTs present opportunities to alter that fundamental nature, however, shifting towards alternate forms of democracy or even postdemocratic governance.

One model of governance enabled by ICTs is direct democracy. Prior to the information age, direct democracy was impracticable in most circumstances; voting necessarily occurred at regular intervals rather than on a continuous basis. ICTs make continuous citizen action a possibility (at least for those citizens with access to the Internet, emphasizing the potential importance of initiatives directed towards establishing universal access), trivializing the effort required to aggregate the collective preferences of the electorate, and thus enabling continuous votes. Direct democracy could conceptually provide the sole mechanism of governance; more likely, it would form a hybrid with representative democracy (or, to be more precise, alter the current balance between direct and representative democracy seen in many governments - see Elizabeth Garrett, The Promises and Perils of Hybrid Democracy, 59 OKLA L.R. 227 (2006)), with citizen participation limited to specific policy topics or to initiatives intended to override legislative decisions, perhaps requiring a supermajority.

Citing many of the same difficulties addressed by those supporting this Resolution, many commentators instead focus on the model of Internet-enabled deliberative democracy as a model for modern governance. (See generally Beth Simone Noveck, Designing Deliberative Democracy in Cyberspace, 9 B.U. J. SCI. & TECH. L. 1 (2003).) Tools such as Unchat enable online deliberative forums, implementing such features as moderation, "speed bumps" encouraging true deliberation, and multi-channel communications to facilitate effective group participation in the deliberative process.

Finally, Dean, Anderson, and Lovink, and to a lesser extent Rossiter, suggest that ICTs could lead to a dismantling of the existing democratic order. Dean, Anderson, and Lovink in particular suggest the possibility of a "postdemocratic governance," where nation-states have been supplanted by other entities as the dominant government institutions.

Criticisms of these alternatives to existing models of democratic governance are prevalent, from doubts as to the effectiveness of deliberative democracy (see Cass R. Sunstein, Group Judgments: Statistical Means, Deliberation, and Information, 80 N.Y.U. L.R. 962 (2005)), to concerns that direct democracy leads to distinctly suboptimal outcomes (as argued by our opponents in this debate), to alarm at the idea of corporate interests obtaining even greater control over the civic sphere. We do not, however, need to argue that any of these outcomes are necessarily beneficial. In fact, the assumption that all of these alterations to the current democratic balance are harmful itself would highlight the fact that good e-government requires ensuring that ICT initiatives are deployed to maximize the effectiveness of representative democracy without putting that very institution at risk.

Conclusions

E-government is not immune to threats common to democracy in general: the possibility of domination by a small group of elites with the means of dominating the flow of communication and information, and the risk of citizen apathy towards government. However, increasing the flow of information within the government and between the government and its citizens is unlikely to make either of these threats more severe. On the contrary, increasing governmental accountability and avenues for citizen involvement may revitalize democratic governments, overcoming elitism and apathy and generating a government that is truly responsible and responsive to the electorate.

E-government is not likely to happen overnight. Incremental improvements in effectiveness, transparency, and communications are happening already, however. Moreover, new initiatives are able to build on earlier initiatives; OpenCongress.org, for example, references data provided on government web sites and Congressional biographies generated by Congresspedia. Just as the Internet did not emerge overnight as a major force in society, we should not expect e-government to arrive overnight - but it is coming. Moreover, third party efforts should not be seen as a "failure" of e-government, but as the trend of the future; the Internet enables greater collaboration between public and private entities, and e-government mandates utilizing this potential to enhance the public welfare wherever possible.

The greatest challenge to e-government is ensuring that all citizens are able to participate fully in the new methods of civic activity and enjoy the full benefits of governmental embrace of ICT technology. Extending access to the Internet and other technologies is one means of accomplishing this; even before universal access is achieved, however, substantial gains can be realized so long as all parties ensure that the rights of those not participating in the process are protected.

Despite these concerns, the potential of e-government is enormous. Within a representative democracy, e-government has the potential to tighten ties between elected representatives and their constituents, creating incentives for the former to be more responsive and the latter to be more involved. Furthermore, e-government presents the possibility (whether or not desirable) of adding elements of direct democracy into our representative system.

The goal of e-government, put simply, is to remove barriers between the government and the governed, and thereby to positively impact government and society. Doing so, however requires that governments take a hard look at the current relationship between citizens and government, identify areas where ICT allows this relationship to change, and implement those changes that create net social benefit. The willingness to reconsider long-standing notions of civic behavior and proper governance, and to alter the status quo, is precisely the "special magic" that is necessary for government in a digital age.