View source for Keyword Index and Glossary of Core Ideas

==Index and Glossary of Core Ideas==

===Air-Gapped Network===
Air gapping is a security measure that aisolates a secure network from unsecure networks physically, electrically and electromagnetically.  

See also: [http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/Glossary_of_Core_Ideas#Sneakernet Sneakernet]

===Antivirus===
Software which attempts to identify and delete or isolate [http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/Glossary_of_Core_Ideas#Malware malware].  Antivirus software may use both a database containing signatures of known threats and heuristics to identify malware.  Usually run as a background service to scan files and email copied to the protected system. 

===Black Hat===
A black hat is a computer [http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/Glossary_of_Core_Ideas#Hacker hacker] who works to harm others (e.g., steal identities, spread computer viruses, install bot software).

See also: [http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/Glossary_of_Core_Ideas#White_Hat White Hat]

===Blacklist===
A list of computers, IP addresses, user names or other identifiers to block from access to a computing resource.

See also: [http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/Glossary_of_Core_Ideas#Whitelist Whitelist]

*[http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/The_Impact_of_Incentives_on_Notice_and_Take-down Moore and Clayton]

===Botnet===
A portmanteau of robot and network.)  Refers to networks of sometimes millions of infected machines that are remotely controlled by malicious actors.  A single infected computer may be referred to as a zombie computer.  The owners of the computer remotely controlled is often unaware of the infection.  The owners of a botnet may use the combined network processing power and bandwidth to send [http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/Glossary_of_Core_Ideas#SPAM SPAM], install [http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/Glossary_of_Core_Ideas#Malware malware] and mount [http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/Glossary_of_Core_Ideas#Distributed_Denial_of_Service_(DDoS) DDoS] attacks or may rent out the botnet to other malicious actors.

References:
* [http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/Why_Information_Security_is_Hard#Key_Words Anderson]
* [http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/Security_Economics_and_the_Internal_Market Anderson et. al.]
* [http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/Emerging_Threats_to_Internet_Security_-_Incentives%2C_Externalities_and_Policy_Implications Bauer and van Eeten] 
*[http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/World_War_3.0:_Ten_Critical_Trends_for_Cybersecurity Cetron and Davies]
*[http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/An_Inquiry_into_the_Nature_and_Causes_of_the_Wealth_of_Internet_Miscreants Franklin et. al.]
*[http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/An_Introduction_to_Key_Themes_in_the_Economics_of_Cyber_Security#Key_Words Gandal]
* [http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/Cyber_Power Nye]
* [http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/Estonia_Three_Years_Later Shackelford]

===''Casus Belli''===
The justification for going to war.  From the Latin "''casus''" meaning "incident" or "event" and "''belli''" meaning "of war."

References:
* [http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/The_Government_and_Cybersecurity Bellovin]
* [http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/Cyber_Security_and_Politically%2C_Socially_and_Religiously_Motivated_Cyber_Attacks#Full_Citation Cornish]

===Civilian Participation===
The involvement of non-military persons in warfare.  While civilians have often provided support to the military in kinetic wars, in [http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/Glossary_of_Core_Ideas#Cyber_Warfare cyber warfare] civilians are able to remotely participate in direct attacks against opponents.    This raises complicated questions of law when the combatants are not uniformed military personnel. 

References:
* [http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/Amending_The_ECPA_To_Enable_a_Culture_of_Cybersecurity_Research Burstein]
* [http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/Cyberspace_and_the_National_Security_of_the_United_Kingdom Cornish et. al.]
* [http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/Combatant_Status_and_Computer_Network_Attack Watts]

===Combatant Status===
The legal status of combatants in warfare.  Existing law distinguishes between uniformed military and civilian status.

References:
* [http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/Does_Information_Security_Attack_Frequency_Increase_With_Vulnerability_Disclosure Arora et. al.]
* [http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/Combatant_Status_and_Computer_Network_Attack Watts]

===Computer Emergency Response Team===
A group of experts brought together to deal with computer security issues.  The Computer Emergency Response Team (CERT) mandate is to develop and promote best management practices and technology applications to “resist attacks on networked systems, to limit damage, and to ensure continuity of critical services.” (Software Engineering Institute 2008).  CERT may be formed by governments to handle security at the national level or by academic institutions or individual corporations.

References:
* [http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/Does_Information_Security_Attack_Frequency_Increase_With_Vulnerability_Disclosure Arora et. al.]
* [http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/Experiences_and_Challenges_with_Using_CERT_Data_to_Analyze_International_Cyber_Security Madnick et. al.]

===Computer Network Attack===
Includes actions taken via computer networks to disrupt, deny, degrade, or destroy the information within computers and computer networks and/or the computers/networks themselves. [http://www.fas.org/irp/doddir/dod/jp3_13.pdf  Joint Doctrine for Information Operations JP 3-13 at I-9 (1998)]

References:
* [http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/Cyberspace_and_the_National_Security_of_the_United_Kingdom Cornish et. al.]
* [http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/Information_Security GAO]
*[http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/An_Introduction_to_Key_Themes_in_the_Economics_of_Cyber_Security#Key_Words Gandal]
* [http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/Combatant_Status_and_Computer_Network_Attack Watts]

===Communications Privacy Law===
Laws which regulate access to electronic communications.  In the United States, the [http://www.usiia.org/legis/ecpa.html Electronic Communications Privacy Act (ECPA]) protects electronic communications while in transit and prohibits the unlawful access and disclosure of communication contents.

References:
* [http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/Amending_The_ECPA_To_Enable_a_Culture_of_Cybersecurity_Research Burstein]
* [http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/Cybersecurity%2C_Identity_Theft%2C_and_the_Limits_of_Tort_Liability Johnson]
* [http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/Cybersecurity:_Preventing_Terrorist_Attacks_and_Protecting_Privacy_in_Cyberspace Nojeim]
* [http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/Cyber_Power Nye]

===Credit Card Fraud===
Theft of goods or services using false or stolen credit card information.

See Also: [http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/Glossary_of_Core_Ideas#Shoulder_Surfing Shoulder Surfing]

References:
* [http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/Cybersecurity_in_the_Payment_Card_Industry#Key_Words Epstein and Brown]
*[http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/An_Inquiry_into_the_Nature_and_Causes_of_the_Wealth_of_Internet_Miscreants Franklin et. al.]
*[http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/Examining_the_Impact_of_Website_Take-down_on_Phishing#Key_Words Moore and Clayton], [http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/The_Consequence_of_Non-Cooperation_in_the_Fight_Against_Phishing 2], [http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/The_Impact_of_Incentives_on_Notice_and_Take-down 3]

===Crimeware===
Software tools designed to aid criminals in perpetrating online crime.  Refers only to programs not generally considered desirable or usable for ordinary tasks.  Thus, while a criminal may use Internet Explorer in the commission of a [http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/Glossary_of_Core_Ideas#Cyber_Crime cybercrime], the Internet Explorer application itself would not be considered crimeware.

References:
*[http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/2007_Malware_Report Computer Economics]
*[http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/Cybersecurity:_Stakeholder_Incentives%2C_Externalities%2C_and_Policy_Options Bauer 
and van Eeten], [http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/Emerging_Threats_to_Internet_Security_-_Incentives%2C_Externalities_and_Policy_Implications 2]
*[http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/Cybersecurity_in_the_Payment_Card_Industry#Key_Words Epstein and Brown]
*[http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/An_Inquiry_into_the_Nature_and_Causes_of_the_Wealth_of_Internet_Miscreants Franklin et. al]
*[http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/An_Introduction_to_Key_Themes_in_the_Economics_of_Cyber_Security#Key_Words Gandal]
*[http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/An_Economic_Analysis_of_the_Private_and_Social_Costs_of_the_Provision_of_Cybersecurity_and_Other_Public_Security_Goods#Key_Words Kobayashi]

===Cyber Crime===
In its broadest definition, cybercrime includes all crime perpetrated with or involving a computer.  Symantec defines it as any crime that is committed using a computer or network, or hardware device. The computer or device may be the agent of the crime, the facilitator of the crime, or the target of the crime. The crime may take place on the computer alone or in addition to other locations. [http://www.symantec.com/norton/cybercrime/definition.jsp Symantec]

References:
* [http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/Security_Economics_and_the_Internal_Market Anderson et. al.]
* [http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/Cybersecurity_in_the_Payment_Card_Industry#Key_Words Epstein and Brown]

===Cyber Security as an Externality===
Economists define externalities as instances where an individual or firm’s actions have 
economic consequences for others for which there is no compensation. One important 
distinction is between positive and negative externalities. Instances of the latter are most 
commonly discussed, such as the environmental pollution caused by a plant, which may 
have impacts on the value of neighboring homes. Important examples of positive 
externalities are so common in communications networks that there is a class of "network 
externalities. For instance, the simple act of installing telephone service to one additional 
customer creates positive externalities on everyone on the telephone network because 
they can now each reach one additional person.
Several attributes of computer security suggest that it is an externality. Most importantly, 
the lack of security on one machine can cause adverse effects on another. The most 
obvious example of this is from electronic commerce, where credit card numbers stolen 
from machines lacking security are used to commit fraud at other sites.

References:
*[http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/Pricing_Security Camp and Wolfram]
*[http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/An_Introduction_to_Key_Themes_in_the_Economics_of_Cyber_Security#Key_Words Gandal]

===Cyber Security as a Public Good===
In economics, a public good is a good that is non-rivalrous and non-excludable. Non-rivalry means that consumption of the good by one individual does not reduce availability of the good for consumption by others; and non-excludability that no one can be effectively excluded from using the good.

References:
*[http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/An_Economic_Analysis_of_the_Private_and_Social_Costs_of_the_Provision_of_Cybersecurity_and_Other_Public_Security_Goods#Key_Words Kobayashi]

===Cyber Terrorism===
A criminal act perpetrated by the use of computers and telecommunications capabilities, resulting in violence, destruction and/or disruption of services to create fear by causing confusion and uncertainty within a given population, with the goal of influencing a government or population to conform to a particular political, social, or ideological agenda. [http://judiciary.senate.gov/hearings/testimony.cfm?id=1054&wit_id=2995 FBI]

References:
* [http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/World_War_3.0:_Ten_Critical_Trends_for_Cybersecurity Cetron and Davies]
* [http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/Critical_Infrastructure_Threats_and_Terrorism DCSINT]
* [http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/Cyber-Apocalypse_Now_-_Securing_the_Internet_Against_Cyberterrorism_and_Using_Universal_Jurisdiction_as_a_Deterrent Gable]
* [http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/Terrorist_Capabilities_for_Cyberattack:_Overview_and_Policy_Issues Rollins and Wilson]
* [http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/The_Evolving_Landscape_of_Maritime_Cybersecurity Shah]
* [http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/Cyber_Terrorism Stohl]

===Cyber Warfare===
Actions by a nation-state to penetrate another nation’s computers or networks for the purposes of causing damage or disruption. [http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/Cyber_War Clarke]

References:
* [http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/Cyber_War Clarke]
* [http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/Cyber_Security_and_Politically%2C_Socially_and_Religiously_Motivated_Cyber_Attacks#Full_Citation Cornish]
* [http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/Critical_Infrastructure_Threats_and_Terrorism DCSINT]
* [http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/Global_Cyber_Deterrence Lan]
* [http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/Estonia_Three_Years_Later Shackelford]
* [http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/Combatant_Status_and_Computer_Network_Attack Watts]

===Data Mining===
The process of extracting hidden information and correlations from one or more databases or collections of data that would not normally be revealed by a simple database query.

References:
* [http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/Best_Practices_for_Data_Protection_and_Privacy#Synopsis Besunder]

===Department of Homeland Security===
Cabinet level department of the United States assigned, ''inter alia'', the task of protecting against terrorist threats and helping state and local authorities prepare for, respond to and recover from domestic disasters.

References:
* [http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/Information_Security GAO]
* [http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/Hardening_The_Internet#Key_Words National Infrastructure Advisory Council]

===Digital Pearl Harbor===
A cyberwarfare attack similar in scale and surprise to the 1941 attack on Pearl Harbor.  The expression is often invoked by those who argue that a cyber-based attack is either imminent or inevitable and that by not being properly prepared, the United States will suffer significant and unnecessary losses.

References:
* [http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/World_War_3.0:_Ten_Critical_Trends_for_Cybersecurity Cetron and Davies]
* [http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/Cyber_Terrorism Stohl]

===DDoS Attack===
The disabling of a targeted website or Internet connection by flooding it with such high levels of Internet traffic that it can no longer respond to normal connection requests.  Often mounted by directing an army of zombie computers (see [http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/Glossary_of_Core_Ideas#Botnet botnet]) to connect to the targeted site simultaneously.  The targeted site may crash while trying to respond to an overwhelming number of connections requests or it may be disabled because all available bandwidth and/or computing resources are tied up responding to the attack requests. 

References:
* [http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/Why_Information_Security_is_Hard Anderson]
* [http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/Critical_Infrastructure_Threats_and_Terrorism DCSINT]

===Disclosure Policy===

References:
* [http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/Does_Information_Security_Attack_Frequency_Increase_With_Vulnerability_Disclosure Arora et. al.]
* [http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/Overcoming_Impediments_to_Information_Sharing Aviram and Tor]
* [http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/The_Price_of_Restricting_Vulnerability_Publications Granick]
*[http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/Examining_the_Impact_of_Website_Take-down_on_Phishing#Key_Words Moore and Clayton], [http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/The_Consequence_of_Non-Cooperation_in_the_Fight_Against_Phishing 2]

===Distributed Denial of Service (DDoS)===
See: [http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/Glossary_of_Core_Ideas#DDoS_Attack DDoS Attack]

*[http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/An_Inquiry_into_the_Nature_and_Causes_of_the_Wealth_of_Internet_Miscreants Franklin. et. al]

===Dumpster Diving===
A method of obtaining  proprietary, confidential or useful information by searching through trash discarded by a target.

===Einstein===
The operational name of the National Cybersecurity Protection System (NCPS).  Cas created in 2003 by the United States Computer Emergency Readiness Team (US-CERT)14 in order to aid in its ability to help reduce and prevent computer network vulnerabilities across the federal government. The initial version of Einstein provided an automated process for collecting, correlating, and analyzing agencies’ computer network traffic information from sensors installed at their Internet connections. The Einstein sensors collected 
network flow records15 at participating agencies, which were then analyzed by US-CERT to detect certain types of malicious activity.

References:
* [http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/Information_Security GAO]

===E.U. Cybersecurity===
Discussions relating to cybersecurity of the European Union and of European Union states.

References:
* [http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/Security_Economics_and_the_Internal_Market Anderson et. al.]
* [http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/Introduction_to_Country_Reports#Key_Words ENISA]

===Geneva Conventions===
Four treaties and three additional protocols that regulates the conduct of hostilities between states and set the standards for humanitarian treatment of the victims of war.

See also: [http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/Glossary_of_Core_Ideas#Laws_of_War Laws of War]

References:
* [http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/Combatant_Status_and_Computer_Network_Attack Watts]

===Hacker===
Advanced computer users who spend a lot of time on or with computers and work hard to find vulnerabilities in IT systems. [http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/Critical_Infrastructure_Threats_and_Terrorism DCSINT]

References:
* [http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/Cybersecurity_in_the_Payment_Card_Industry#Key_Words Epstein and Brown]
* [http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/Critical_Infrastructure_Threats_and_Terrorism DCSINT]
* [http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/Cybersecurity%2C_Identity_Theft%2C_and_the_Limits_of_Tort_Liability Johnson]

===Hacktivism===
The nonviolent use of illegal or legally ambiguous digital tools in pursuit of political ends. These tools include web site defacements, redirects, denial-of-service attacks, information theft, web site parodies, virtual sit-ins, virtual sabotage, and software development.  [http://www.alexandrasamuel.com/dissertation/index.html Samuel, A.]

References:
* [http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/World_War_3.0:_Ten_Critical_Trends_for_Cybersecurity Cetron and Davies]
* [http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/Cyber_Terrorism Stohl]

===Hacktivist===
Combination of [http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/Glossary_of_Core_Ideas#Hacker hacker] and activist. Individuals that have a political motive for their activities, and identify that motivation by their actions, such as defacing opponents’ websites with counter-information or disinformation.

See also: [http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/Glossary_of_Core_Ideas#Hacktivism Hacktivism]

References:
* [http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/Critical_Infrastructure_Threats_and_Terrorism DCSINT]

===Honeypot===
A computer, network or other information technology resource set as a trap to attract attacks.  Honeypots may be used to collect metrics (how long does it take for an unprotected system to be breached), to test defenses, to examine methods of attack or to catch attackers.  A honeypot system may also be used to collect [http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/Glossary_of_Core_Ideas#SPAM SPAM] so it can be added to a [http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/Glossary_of_Core_Ideas#Blacklist blacklist].

References:
* [http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/Does_Information_Security_Attack_Frequency_Increase_With_Vulnerability_Disclosure Arora et. al.]

===Identity Fraud/Theft===
The exploitation by malevolent third parties of unwarranted access to clients' or consumers' identities.  Often the result of lax data security or privacy measures.

References:
*[http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/2007_Malware_Report Computer Economics]
* [http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/Cybersecurity%2C_Identity_Theft%2C_and_the_Limits_of_Tort_Liability Johnson]

===Information Asymetries===
Information asymmetry deals with the study of decisions in transactions where one party has more or better information than the other. This creates an imbalance of power in transactions which can sometimes cause the transactions to go awry.

The software market suffers from the same information asymmetry. Vendors may make claims about the security of their products, but buyers have no reason to trust them. In many cases, even the vendor does not know how secure its software is. So buyers have no reason to pay more for protection, and vendors are disinclined to invest in it.

References:
* [http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/The_Economics_of_Information_Security Anderson and Moore]
* [http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/Overcoming_Impediments_to_Information_Sharing Aviram and Tor]
* [http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/Security_Economics_and_the_Internal_Market Anderson et. al.]
* [http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/The_Price_of_Restricting_Vulnerability_Publications Granick]

===Intelligence Infrastructure/Information Infrastructure===
The network of computers and communication lines underlying critical services that American society has come to depend on: financial systems, the power grid, transportation, emergency services, and government programs. Information infrastructure includes the Internet, telecommunications networks, “embedded” systems (the built-in microprocessors that control machines from microwaves to missiles), and “dedicated” devices like individual personal computers. [http://www.cfr.org/publication/10212/targets_for_terrorism.html Council on Foreign Relations]

References:
* [http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/Nuclear_Security Aloise]
* [http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/Law_and_War_in_the_Virtual_Era Beard]
* [http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/Cyber_Power Nye]
* [http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/Evolving_Cybersecurity_Issues_in_the_Utility_Industry Perkins]

===Interdependencies===
The inter-connections between supposedly independent but often interdependent systems.

See also: [http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/Glossary_of_Core_Ideas#SCADA_Systems SCADA Systems]

References:
* [http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/Overcoming_Impediments_to_Information_Sharing Aviram and Tor]
* [http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/Cybersecurity_and_Economic_Incentives OECD]
* [http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/Evolving_Cybersecurity_Issues_in_the_Utility_Industry Perkins]
* [http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/A_Framework_for_Linking_Cybersecurity_Metrics_to_the_Modeling_of_Macroeconomic_Interdependencies Santos et. al.]

===International Humanitarian Law===
That part of international law which seek, for humanitarian reasons, to limit the effects of armed conflict. It protects persons who are not or are no longer participating in the hostilities and restricts the means and methods of warfare. International humanitarian law is also known as the law of war or the law of armed conflict.  International law is the body of rules governing relations between States.  It is contained in agreements between States (treaties or conventions), in customary rules, which consist of State practise considered by them as as legally binding, and in general principles.  [http://www.icrc.org/web/eng/siteeng0.nsf/html/humanitarian-law-factsheet ICRC]

References:
* [http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/Law_and_War_in_the_Virtual_Era Beard]
* [http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/Combatant_Status_and_Computer_Network_Attack Watts]

===Internet Relay Chat (IRC)===
A method of real-time Internet communication often used by criminals to buy and sell purloined information such as credit card numbers and personal identity information.  IRC chatrooms may be open or private.

===Internet Service Providers===
A company that offers access to the Internet.  Internet Service Providers may also provide add-on services such as web hosting, electronic mail, virus scanning, SPAM filtering, etc.

References:
* [http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/The_Market_Consequences_of_Cybersecurity:_Defining_Externalities_and_Ways_to_Address_Them#Synopsis OECD]

===Keylogger===
Software or hardware that monitors and logs the keystrokes a user types into a computer.  The keylogger may store the key sequences locally for later retrieval or send them to a remote location.  A hardware keylogger can only be detected by physically inspecting the computer for unusual hardware.

References:
* [http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/2007_Malware_Report Computer Economics]
* [http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/Critical_Infrastructure_Threats_and_Terrorism DCSINT]

===Lawfare===
The use of international law to damage an opponent in a war without use of arms.

References:
* [http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/Law_and_War_in_the_Virtual_Era Beard]

===Laws of War===
The body of law that define the legality of using armed force to resolve a conflict (''jus ad bellum'') and the laws that define the legality of the actual hostilities and related activities (''jus in bello'').

References:

* [http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/Law_and_War_in_the_Virtual_Era Beard]
* [http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/Cyber-Apocalypse_Now_-_Securing_the_Internet_Against_Cyberterrorism_and_Using_Universal_Jurisdiction_as_a_Deterrent Gable]
* [http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/Cyber_Power Nye]
* [http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/Combatant_Status_and_Computer_Network_Attack Watts]

===Malware===
A variety of computer software designed to infiltrate a user's computer specifically for malicious purposes.  Includes, ''inter alia'', computer virus software, botnet software, computer worms, spyware, trojan horses, crimeware and rootkits.

References:
* [http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/Critical_Infrastructure_Threats_and_Terrorism DCSINT]
*[http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/2007_Malware_Report Computer Economics]
* [http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/Cybersecurity_in_the_Payment_Card_Industry#Key_Words Epstein and Brown]

===National Cybersecurity Strategy (U.S.)===
A comprehensive policy to secure America’s digital infrastructure as part of the Administrative Branch's [http://www.whitehouse.gov/cybersecurity/comprehensive-national-cybersecurity-initiative Comprehensive National Cybersecurity Initiative].  The goals of the policy are: to establish a front line of defense against current immediate threats; to defend against threats by enhancing U.S. counterintelligence capabilities and; to strengthen the future cybersecurity environment by expanding cyber education and redirecting research and development efforts to define and develop strategies to deter hostile or malicious activity in cyberspace.

References:
* [http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/Cyber_Security_and_Regulation_in_the_United_States Lewis]
* [http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/Cybersecurity:_Current_Legislation%2C_Executive_Branch_Initiatives%2C_and_Options_for_Congress Theohary and Rollins]
* [http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/Securing_Cyberspace_for_the_44th_Presidency Center for Strategic and International Studies]

===National Security===
Broadly refers to the requirement to maintain the survival of the nation-state through the use of economic, military and political power and the exercise of diplomacy. [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_security Wikipedia]

References:
* [http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/Nuclear_Security Aloise]
* [http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/Cyberspace_and_the_National_Security_of_the_United_Kingdom Cornish et. al.]
* [http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/Terrorist_Capabilities_for_Cyberattack:_Overview_and_Policy_Issues Rollins and Wilson]
* [http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/Cybersecurity:_Current_Legislation%2C_Executive_Branch_Initiatives%2C_and_Options_for_Congress Theohary and Rollins]

===Notice and Take-down===
Most commonly used to remove infringing web material under copyright law, a notice and take-down regime is a procedure by which an infringing web site is removed from a service provider's (ISP) network, or access to an allegedly infringing website, disabled. Websites violating copyright are subject to notice and take-down, as are phishing websites.

References:

===Organized Crime===
Groups having some manner of a formalized structure and whose primary objective is to obtain money through illegal activities. Such groups maintain their position through the use of actual or threatened violence, corrupt public officials, graft, or extortion, and generally have a significant impact on the people in their locales, region, or the country as a whole.  [http://www.fbi.gov/hq/cid/orgcrime/glossary.htm FBI]

References:
* [http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/Security_Economics_and_the_Internal_Market Anderson et. al]
* [http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/Cyberspace_and_the_National_Security_of_the_United_Kingdom Cornish et. al.]
* [http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/Cybersecurity_in_the_Payment_Card_Industry#Key_Words Epstein and Brown]
* [http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/An_Inquiry_into_the_Nature_and_Causes_of_the_Wealth_of_Internet_Miscreants Franklin et. al]

===Outreach and Collaboration===
Working across government and with the private sector to share information on threats and other data, and to develop shared approaches to securing cyberspace. [http://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/natsec/R40836.pdf CRS Report for Congress, at 6 (2009).]

References:
* [http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/Overcoming_Impediments_to_Information_Sharing Aviram and Tor]
* [http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/Pricing_Security Camp and Wolfram]
* [http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/Introduction_to_Country_Reports#Key_Words ENISA]
* [http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/The_Price_of_Restricting_Vulnerability_Publications Granick]
* [http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/An_Economic_Analysis_of_the_Private_and_Social_Costs_of_the_Provision_of_Cybersecurity_and_other_Public_Security_Goods Kobayashi]
* [http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/Experiences_and_Challenges_with_Using_CERT_Data_to_Analyze_International_Cyber_Security Madnick et. al.]
*[http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/The_Consequence_of_Non-Cooperation_in_the_Fight_Against_Phishing Moore and Clayton]
* [http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/Cybersecurity:_Current_Legislation%2C_Executive_Branch_Initiatives%2C_and_Options_for_Congress Theohary and Rollins]

===Password Weakness===
Security threats caused by the use of easily guessable passwords which protect vital stores of confidential information stored online.

References:
* [http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/Cybersecurity%2C_Identity_Theft%2C_and_the_Limits_of_Tort_Liability Johnson]

===Patching===

References:
* [http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/Does_Information_Security_Attack_Frequency_Increase_With_Vulnerability_Disclosure Arora et. al.]

===Phishing===
The criminally fraudulent process of attempting to acquire sensitive information such as usernames, passwords and credit card details by masquerading as a trustworthy entity in an electronic communication.

References: 

* [http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/Security_Economics_and_the_Internal_Market Anderson et. al.]
* [http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/2007_Malware_Report Computer Economics]
*[http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/Examining_the_Impact_of_Website_Take-down_on_Phishing#Key_Words Moore and Clayton], [http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/The_Consequence_of_Non-Cooperation_in_the_Fight_Against_Phishing 2]

===Privacy Law===
Laws which regulate the protection of confidential personal information stored in private records or disclosed to a professional.  Also includes laws which regulate the gathering of electronic data in which personal information is accumulated or misappropriated.

References:
* [http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/Best_Practices_for_Data_Protection_and_Privacy#Synopsis Besunder]

===Risk Modeling===
The creation of a model to estimate risk exposure, policy option efficacy and cost-benefit analysis of a particular threat and solution. See [http://cisac.stanford.edu/publications/how_much_is_enough__a_riskmanagement_approach_to_computer_security/ Soo Hoo, Kevin J.]

References:
* [http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/Nothing_Ventured%2C_Nothing_Gained Geer and Conway]
* [http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/An_Economic_Analysis_of_the_Private_and_Social_Costs_of_the_Provision_of_Cybersecurity_and_other_Public_Security_Goods Kobayashi]
* [http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/Making_the_Best_Use_of_Cybersecurity_Economic_Models Rue and Pfleeger]
* [http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/A_Framework_for_Linking_Cybersecurity_Metrics_to_the_Modeling_of_Macroeconomic_Interdependencies Santos et. al.]
* [http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/Metrics_for_Mitigating_Cybersecurity_Threats_to_Networks Schneidewind]

===Research & Development===
Research and development (R&D) addressing cyber security and information infrastructure protection.

References:
* [http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/Pricing_Security Camp and Wolfram]
* [http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/Toward_a_Safer_and_More_Secure_Cyberspace Commission on Improving Cybersecurity Research in the U. S.]
* [http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/Research_Agenda_for_the_Banking_and_Finance_Sector Financial Services Sector Coordinating Council for Critical Infrastructure Protection]
* [http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/Nothing_Ventured%2C_Nothing_Gained Geer and Conway]
* [http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/Hard_Problem_List INFOSEC Research Council]
* [http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/Cyber_Security_Research_and_Development_Agenda Institute for Information Infrastructure Protection]
* [http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/The_Need_for_a_National_Cybersecurity_Research_and_Development_Agenda Maughan]
* [http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/Hardening_The_Internet#Key_Words National Infrastructure Advisory Council]

===SCADA Systems===
SCADA stands for "supervisory control and data acquisition" and in the cybersecurity context usually refers to industrial control systems that control infrastructure such as electrical power transmission and distribution, water treatment and distribution, wastewater collection and treatment, oil and gas pipelines and large communication systems.  The focus is on whether as these systems are connected to the public Internet they become vulnerable to a remote attack.

References:
* [http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/Cyber_Power Nye]
* [http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/A_Framework_for_Linking_Cybersecurity_Metrics_to_the_Modeling_of_Macroeconomic_Interdependencies Santos et. al.]
* [http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/Metrics_for_Mitigating_Cybersecurity_Threats_to_Networks Schneidewind]

===Scareware===
Software or web site that purports to be security software reporting a threat against a user's computer to convince the user to purchase unneeded software or install malware.

*[http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/2007_Malware_Report Computer Economics]

===Script Kiddie===
A derogatory term for a [http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/Glossary_of_Core_Ideas#Black_Hat Black Hat] who uses canned tools and programs to commit cyber crime without understanding how they work.

===Shoulder Surfing===
The process of obtaining passwords or other sensitive information by serendipitously watching an authorized user enter information into a computer system.

===Sneakernet===
Describes the transfer of data between computers or networks that are not physically, electrically or electromagnetically connected requiring information to be shared by physically transporting media contain the shared information from one computer to another.  Initially described systems lacking the technology to network together, now usually refers to systems deliberately isolated for security reasons.

See also: [http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/Glossary_of_Core_Ideas#Air-Gapped_Network Air-Gapped Network]

===Social Engineering===
Conning a human into supplying passwords, computer access or other sensitive information by pretending to be a person with rights to the information or who the target believes they must surrender the information to.

References:
* [http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/Emerging_Threats_to_Internet_Security_-_Incentives%2C_Externalities_and_Policy_Implications Bauer and van Eeten]
* [http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/Cyber_Power Nye]
* [http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/The_Market_Consequences_of_Cybersecurity:_Defining_Externalities_and_Ways_to_Address_Them#Synopsis OECD] [http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/Cybersecurity_and_Economic_Incentives 2]

===Social Network===
A software application or website that allows a large group of users to interact with each other, often allowing the creation of online portals or identities to share with specific people or the online world at large.

===Software Vulnerability===

References:
* [http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/Does_Information_Security_Attack_Frequency_Increase_With_Vulnerability_Disclosure Arora et. al.]
* [http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/The_Price_of_Restricting_Vulnerability_Publications Granick]

===SPAM===
Unwanted or junk email usually sent indiscriminately in bulk selling illegal or near illegal goods or services.  Even with low response rates and heavy filtering, SPAM can stil be economically viable because of the extremely low costs in sending even huge quantities of electronic messages.  Commonly believed to be named after the [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=anwy2MPT5RE Monty Python skit] where the breakfast meat Spam overwhelms all other food choices.

===Sponsored Attacks===
[http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/Glossary_of_Core_Ideas#Computer_Network_Attack Computer network attacks] commissioned by, supported by or carried out by a state or government.

Reverences:
* [http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/The_Government_and_Cybersecurity Bellovin]

===State Affiliation===
Under the control or command of a recognized state or government.

References:
* [http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/Cyber_Security_and_Politically%2C_Socially_and_Religiously_Motivated_Cyber_Attacks#Full_Citation Cornish]
* [http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/Cyberspace_and_the_National_Security_of_the_United_Kingdom Cornish et. al.]
* [http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/Cyber-Apocalypse_Now_-_Securing_the_Internet_Against_Cyberterrorism_and_Using_Universal_Jurisdiction_as_a_Deterrent Gable]
* [http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/Combatant_Status_and_Computer_Network_Attack Watts]

===Tragedy of Commons===
A situation, first described in an influential article written by ecologist Garrett Hardin for the journal Science, in 1968, in which multiple individuals, acting independently, and solely and rationally consulting their own self-interest, will ultimately deplete a shared limited resource even when it is clear that it is not in anyone's long-term interest for this to happen. The term can be applied to any issue related to the management of a shared resource, from energy to the public domain, to cybersecurity.

References:
* [http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/Why_Information_Security_is_Hard#Key_Words Anderson]

===Transparency===
A set of policies, practices and procedures that allow citizens to have accessibility, usability, informativeness, understandability and auditability of information and process held by centers of authority.  [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transparency_(social) Wikipedia]

References:
* [http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/Overcoming_Impediments_to_Information_Sharing Aviram and Tor]
* [http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/Research_Agenda_for_the_Banking_and_Finance_Sector Financial Services Sector Coordinating Council for Critical Infrastructure Protection]

===Trojan===
[http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/Glossary_of_Core_Ideas#Malware Malware] which masquerades as some other type of program such as a link to a web site, a desirable image, etc. to trick a user into installing it.  Named for the mythological [http://www.mlahanas.de/Greeks/Mythology/TrojanHorse.html Trojan Horse].

===Virtual Military Technologies===
Warfare made possible by advances in remotely controlled or semiautomated military technologies which remove the operator from risk of harm while attacking an opponent.

References:
* [http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/Law_and_War_in_the_Virtual_Era Beard]
* [http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/Global_Cyber_Deterrence_Views_from_China Lan]

===Virtual Warfare===

See: [http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/Glossary_of_Core_Ideas#Virtual_Military_Technologies Virtual Military Technologies]

===White Hat===
A white hat is a computer [http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/Glossary_of_Core_Ideas#Hacker hacker] who works to find and fix computer security risks.  White hat consultants are often hired to attempt to break into their client's network to see if all security holes have been addressed.

See also: [http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/Glossary_of_Core_Ideas#Black_Hat Black Hat]

===Whitelist===
A list of computers, IP addresses, user names or other identifiers to specifically allow access to a computing resource.  Normally combined with a default "no-access" policy.

See also: [http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/Glossary_of_Core_Ideas#Blacklist Blacklist]

===Worm===
A type of malware that replicates itself and spreads to other computers through network connections.

===Zero-Day Exploit===
[http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/Glossary_of_Core_Ideas#Malware Malware] designed to exploit a newly discovered security hole unknown to the software developer.  "Zero-day" refers to the amount of time a developer has between learning of a security hole and the time it becomes public or when [http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/Glossary_of_Core_Ideas#Black_Hat black hat] [http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/Glossary_of_Core_Ideas#Hacker hackers] find out about it and try to use the security hole for nefarious purposes.

References:
* [http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/Does_Information_Security_Attack_Frequency_Increase_With_Vulnerability_Disclosure Arora et. al.]
* [http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/cybersecurity/The_Price_of_Restricting_Vulnerability_Publications Granick]