The International Framework of Copyright Law-JA

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The Rationale for the International System

Each country in the world has its own set of copyright laws. However, the flexibility that most countries enjoy in adjusting and enforcing their own laws is limited by a set of international treaties. Why do we need any international management of this field? There are two traditional answers to this question.

First, without some international standardization, nations might enact legislation that protects their own citizens while leaving foreigners vulnerable. Such discrimination was common prior to international regulation. As copyright owners become increasingly interested in global protection for their creation, mutual recognition on fair terms of rights across borders becomes ever more important.

Second, some copyright holders believe that developing nations would not adopt adequate copyright protections unless forced to do so by treaty. Representatives of developing nations strongly dispute this argument.

International Instruments

The simplest way to achieve these goals would be a single treaty signed by all countries. Unfortunately, the current situation is more complex. Instead of one treaty, we now have six major multilateral agreements, each with a different set of member countries. Jamaica is a member of all six of the major "multilateral" agreements.

Each of the six agreements was negotiated within - and is now administered by - an international organization. Four of the six are managed by the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO); one by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO); and one by the World Trade Organization (WTO).

None of the six treaties pertaining to copyright law contains a comprehensive set of rules or standards for a copyright system. Rather, each one requires member countries to deal with particular issues in particular ways, but leaves to the member countries considerable discretion in implementing its requirements.

Click here for more on the stages of an international agreement.

Set forth below are brief descriptions of the six major treaties.

Berne Convention

In 1886 ten European states signed the Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works (referred to hereafter as the "Berne Convention") in order to reduce confusion about international copyright law. Since then, a total of 164 countries have joined the Berne Convention. However, there have been several revisions of the Berne Convention, and not all countries have ratified the most recent version. Any nation is permitted to join. You can check to see if your country is a member of the Berne Convention by consulting this link. Below is a map showing which countries are currently members.

The Berne Convention established three fundamental principles. The first and most famous is the principle of “national treatment,” which requires member countries to give the residents of other member countries the same rights under the copyright laws that they give to their own residents. So, for example, a novel written in Bolivia by a Bolivian citizen enjoys the same protection in Ghana as a novel written in Ghana by an Ghanian citizen.

The second is the principle of “independence” of protection. It provides that each member country must give foreign works the same protections they give domestic works, even when the foreign works would not be shielded under the copyright laws of the countries where they originated. For example, even if a novel written in Bolivia by a Bolivian national were not protected under Bolivian law, it would still be protected in Ghana if it fulfilled the requirements for protection under Ghanian law.

The third is the principle of “automatic protection.” This principle forbids member countries from requiring persons from other Berne Convention member countries to undergo legal formalities as a prerequisite for copyright protection. (They may impose such requirements on their own citizens, but usually do not.) The effect of this principle is that the Jamaican author of a novel doesn’t have to register or declare her novel in Ghana, India, Indonesia, the US or any other member state of the Berne Convention; her novel will be automatically protected in all of these countries from the moment it is written.

In addition to these basic principles, the Berne Convention also imposes on member countries a number of more specific requirements. For instance, they must enforce copyrights for a minimum period of time. The minimum copyright term for countries that have ratified the most recent version of the Berne Convention is the life of the author plus 50 years for all works except photographs and cinema. The Berne Convention also requires its members to recognize and enforce a limited subset of the “moral rights” discussed in Module 1.

The Berne Convention sets forth a framework for member countries to adopt exceptions to the mandated copyright protections. The so-called "three-step test" contained in Article 9(2) (discussed in more detail below) defines the freedom of member countries to create exceptions or limitations to authors' rights to control reproductions of their works. Other provisions of the Berne Convention give member countries discretion to create more specific exceptions.

When the Berne Convention was revised most recently in Paris in 1971, the signatory countries added an Appendix((.link_red)), which contains special provisions concerning developing countries. In particular, developing countries may, for certain works and under certain conditions, depart from the minimum standards of protection with regard to the right of translation and the right of reproduction of copyrighted works. More specifically, the Appendix permits developing countries to grant non-exclusive and non-transferable compulsory licenses to translate works for the purpose of teaching, scholarship or research, and to reproduce works for use in connection with systematic instructional activities.

While the Berne Convention outlines broad standards for copyright protection, it mandates few specific rules. As a result, the legislature in each member country enjoys considerable flexibility in implementing its requirements. For example, in the Berne Convention Implementation Act of 1988, the U.S. Congress adopted a “minimalist” approach to implementation, making only those changes to copyright law that were absolutely necessary to qualify for membership.

The Berne Convention does not contain an enforcement mechanism. This means that member states have little power to punish another state that does not comply with the Berne Convention's guidelines. As we will see later, this situation partially changed for the members of the Berne Convention that also joined the WTO.

To learn more about the Convention you may read its text((.link_red)) or consult a brief discussion of the history of the Berne Convention.

Universal Copyright Convention

The Universal Copyright Convention (or UCC) was developed by UNESCO and adopted in 1952. It was created as an alternative to the Berne Convention. The UCC addressed the desire of several countries (including the United States and the Soviet Union) to enjoy some multilateral copyright protection without joining the Berne Convention.

The UCC’s provisions are more flexible than those of the Berne Convention. This increased flexibility was intended to accommodate countries at different stages of development and countries with different economic and social systems. Like the Berne Convention, the UCC incorporates the principle of national treatment and prohibits any discrimination against foreign authors, but it contains fewer requirements that member countries must comply with.

The UCC has decreased in importance as most countries are now party to the Berne Convention or are members of the WTO (or both). The copyright obligations of members of the WTO are governed by the Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS), discussed below.

You may check if your country is a member of the UCC by reviewing this list. For more information about the UCC you may read its text or consult the Examination of the UCC.

Rome Convention (1961)

By 1961, technology had progressed significantly since the Berne Convention was signed. Some inventions, such as tape recorders, had made it easier to copy recorded works. The Berne Convention only applied to printed works and thus did not help copyright holders defend against the new technologies. To address the perceived need for strong legislative protection for recorded works, members of WIPO concluded the Rome Convention for the Protection of Performers, Producers of Phonograms and Broadcasting Organizations on October 26, 1961. It extended copyright protection from the author of a work to the creators and producers of particular, physical embodiments of the work. These "fixations" include media such as audiocassettes, CDs, and DVDs.

The Rome Convention requires member countries to grant protection to the works of performers, producers of phonographs, and broadcasting organizations. However, it also permits member countries to create exceptions to that protection -- for example, to permit unauthorized uses of a recording for the purpose of teaching or scientific research.

Eighty-eight countries have signed the Rome Convention. Below is a map of the member states:

Membership in the Rome Convention is open only to countries that are already parties to the Berne Convention or to the Universal Copyright Convention. Like many international treaties, joining the Rome Convention has an uncertain effect on domestic law. Countries that join the convention may "reserve" their rights with regards to certain provisions of the treaty. In practice, this has enabled countries to avoid the application of rules that would require important changes to their national laws.

For more information on the Rome Convention you may read its text((.link_red)) or read more about the Rome Convention provisions.

WIPO Copyright Treaty (WCT)

The way that copyright owners reproduce, distribute, and market their works has changed in the digital age. Sound recordings, articles, photographs, and books are commonly stored in electronic formats, circulated via the Internet, and compiled in databases. Unfortunately, the same technologies that enable more efficient storage and distribution have also facilitated widespread copying of copyrighted works. Concerned about the effects of these new technologies, the governments of developed countries advocated for and ultimately secured two treaties: the WIPO Copyright Treaty and the WIPO Performance and Phonograms Treaty.

The WIPO Copyright Treaty (WCT) is a special agreement under the Berne Convention that entered into force on March 6, 2002. It is the first international treaty that requires countries to provide copyright protection to computer programs and to databases (compilations of data or other material).

The WCT also requires members to prohibit the circumvention of technologies set by rightsholders to prevent the copying and distribution of their works. These technologies include encryption or “rights management information” (data that identify works or their authors and are necessary for the management of their rights).

Eighty-eight countries are now parties to the WCT.

For more about the WCT read its text((.link_red)) or read the Examination of the WCT.

WIPO Performances and Phonograms Treaty (WPPT)

The WIPO Performances and Phonograms Treaty (WPPT) was signed by the member states of WIPO on December 20, 1996. The WPPT enhances the intellectual property rights of performers and of producers of phonograms. Phonograms include vinyl records, tapes, compact discs, digital audiotapes, MP3s, and other media for storing sound recordings.

The WPPT grants performers economic rights in their performances that have been fixed in phonograms. It also grants performers moral rights over these performances. By contrast, the producers of phonograms are only granted economic rights in them.

Eighty-six countries are party to the WPPT.

For more about the WPPT read its text((.link_red)) or consult the Examination of the WPPT.

The Agreement on Trade Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS)

The TRIPS is an international agreement administered by the WTO that was negotiated and concluded in 1994. A map showing the current membership of the WTO is available here((.link_red)). TRIPS establishes minimum standards for many forms of intellectual property protection in member countries of the WTO, including copyright.

The substantive provisions of TRIPS do not differ drastically from the Berne Convention. The major difference is that TRIPS requires member countries to grant copyright protection to computer programs and data compilations. However, TRIPS does not require the protection of authors' moral rights, which the Berne Convention requires.

The most important innovations of TRIPS are the remedies it requires. Unlike the Berne Convention, TRIPS requires member countries to provide effective sanctions for violations of copyrights. In addition, it creates a dispute resolution mechanism by which WTO member countries can force other members to comply with their treaty obligations. It is sometimes said that, unlike the Berne convention, TRIPS has "teeth."

TRIPS allows for some flexibility in its implementation. This flexibility is intended to permit developing nations to balance the incorporation of the general principles of TRIPS with development concerns. You can study additional information concerning the flexibilities of TRIPS for developing nations.

The text of the TRIPS Agreement is available here((.link_red)).

The proposed Anti-Counterfeiting Trade Agreement (ACTA)

The six multilateral treaties described above may soon be joined by a seventh. In October 2007, the United States, the European Community, Switzerland, and Japan simultaneously announced that they would negotiate a new intellectual property enforcement treaty, the Anti-Counterfeiting Trade Agreement (ACTA). Australia, the Republic of Korea, New Zealand, and Mexico have since joined the negotiations. Several rounds of negotiations have occurred. The participants have stated publicly that they expect to finish negotiations in 2010.

Among other issues, ACTA will contain provisions to address "Internet distribution and information technology," such as authorizing officials to search for illegally downloaded music on personal devices at airports, or forcing Internet Service Providers to provide information about possible copyright infringers without a warrant.

Regional Agreements

The multilateral agreements we have just described contain the primary provisions that limit the freedom of each country in shaping its own copyright laws. But some countries also belong to regional organizations that have the power to influence the copyright laws of their members, such as the "'European Union (EU)'", "'African Intellectual Property Organization (OAPI)'" and "'North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA)'".

Free Trade Agreements and Bilateral Investment Treaties

Multilateral treaties such as TRIPS can provide powerful global protection for copyright holders because they establish minimum standards for protection of copyrights that are binding on large numbers of countries. However, copyright holders sometimes try to obtain even stronger protections through bilateral treaties between countries or organizations of countries. Bilateral treaties on copyright law often address specific issues between the the two parties. Such agreements are commonly known as free trade agreements (FTAs) or Bilateral Investment Treaties (BITs).

Typically, such bilateral agreements either narrow the flexibilities that a developing country would enjoy under TRIPS or impose more stringent standards for copyright protection. For example, the U.S. government has included anti-circumvention obligations in its bilateral FTAs with Jordan, Singapore, Chile, Morocco, Bahrain and Oman. Similarly, the European Union has recently negotiated FTAs with developing countries that significantly limit the discretion of those countries in adjusting their copyright laws.

FTAs and BITs are highly controversial. Many scholars and representatives of developing countries regard them as abuses of the power of developed countries. Opponents of proposed FTAs or BITs have sometimes been able to prevent their adoption or modify them.

Click here for more Information on FTAs.

The Three-Step Test

Most of the major multilateral, regional, and bilateral agreements use a tool that has come to be known as the “three-step test” to define the freedom of member countries to create “exceptions and limitations” to copyrights. The three-step test was first created in the 1967 revision of the Berne Convention. It provides:

"It shall be a matter for legislation in the countries of the Union to permit the reproduction of such works [a] in certain special cases, provided that [b] such reproduction does not conflict with a normal exploitation of the work and [c] does not unreasonably prejudice the legitimate interests of the author."

Most international copyright agreements since then have incorporated versions of this test. For example, versions of the test may be found in the TRIPS Agreement (Article 13), the WCT (Article 10), several of the EU copyright directives, and several bilateral agreements. Indeed, three-step tests may now be found in the national legislation of many countries, including France, Portugal, China, and Australia. Even when national legislation does not explicitly incorporate the test, judges sometimes rely upon it when construing and applying their nation's copyright laws.

Perspectives For Developing Countries

Some observers believe that governments should upgrade and harmonize copyright law globally because it promotes the arts and rewards creators. They argue that granting an exclusive right in creative expression provides a necessary incentive for copyright holders to invest in the creation and distribution of expressive works. This stimulates cultural expression and benefits citizens. Suppression of competition from "pirates," they argue, is necessary to allow local creative industries to flourish.

However, others argue that implementing the same copyright law in all countries has a disproportionate and negative effect on developing countries. Most developed nations have powerful and lucrative entertainment, educational, and research industries that export copyrighted works, and thus benefit from strong copyright law. Developing countries, on the other hand, typically import copyrighted works. Thus, it is argued, the residents of developing countries have to pay more royalties and fees as a result of enhanced copyright protection. It is also argued that restrictive copyright laws prevent many governments from addressing important social needs -- such as providing their citizens with good educations -- because critical information is locked up by the law.

The latter set of arguments have prompted a growing number of groups in developing countries to resist the imposition of the minimum standards of copyright protection set by the TRIPS Agreement and the even harsher duties that are imposed on developing countries by FTAs. They call for a better balance between, on one hand, providing incentives to creators and rewarding their creative activities and, on the other hand, promoting access to knowledge and research in order to spur economic growth and foster innovation in the developing countries.

Additional resources

A thorough discussion of international copyright law may be found in Paul Edward Geller, ed., International Copyright Law and Practice (2 volumes, Matthew Bender), although its coverage of developing and transitional countries is thin. (It is also prohibitively expensive). Other useful paper treatises include Paul Goldstein, International Copyright: Principles, Law, and Practice (Oxford University Press) and Silke von Lewinski, International Copyright Law and Policy (Oxford University Press 2008).

An excellent compendium of the copyright laws in over 100 countries has been assembled by UNESCO: Collection of National Copyright Laws.

As indicated above, an especially important component of most international copyright agreements is the three-step test. The most comprehensive and accessible examination of the history and meaning of that test may be found in P. Bernt Hugenholtz & Ruth L. Okediji, Conceiving an International Instrument on Limitations and Exceptions to Copyright: Final Report, March 06, 2008((.link_red)). Other good analyses of the three-step test available in print but not online include Martin Senftleben, Copyright, Limitations and the Three-Step Test (Kluwer Law Int'l 2004); and Jane C. Ginsburg, "Toward Supranational Copyright Law? The WTO Panel Decision and the "Three Step Test" for Copyright Exemptions," 187 Revue internationale Du Droit D'Auteur 3, 49 (2001).

A thorough review of the principal exceptions and limitations to copyrights recognized by the main multilateral agreements -- combined with a argument for the clarification and expansion of those exceptions and limitations, emphasizing "the importance of access to creative works for developing countries" -- may be found in Ruth L. Okediji, "The International Copyright System: Limitations, Exceptions and Public Interest Considerations for Developing Countries, International Centre for Trade and Sustainable Development and United Nations Conference on Trade and Development," Issue Paper No. 15 (2006)((.link_green)). Included in Okediji's essay is an excellent discussion of the Berne Convention Appendix.

For a WIPO study more skeptical of the value of those exceptions and limitations, see WIPO Standing Committee on Copyright and Related Rights, WIPO Study on Limitations and Exceptions of Copyright and Related Rights in the Digital Environment, 9th Session, June 23-27, 2003, WIPO Doc. SCCR/9/7 (April 5, 2003)((.link_green)).

An excellent study of the process of implementing the TRIPS Agreement (including a detailed discussion of the complex processes that led to the revised Bangui Agreement among the OAPI countries) can be found in Carolyn Deere, The Implementation Game: The TRIPS Agreement and the Global Politics of Intellectual Property Reform in Developing Countries (Oxford UP 2009). The Introduction, which sketches the argument of the book, is available online here((.link_green)).

For up-to-date information concerning the implementation of the EU Information Society Directive by individual countries, including a good bibliography of scholarly studies of the implementation process, see Instituut voor Infomatierecht (IVIR), Report on the Implementation of the Information Society Directive (2008).

Cases

The following judicial opinion and summaries of rulings issued in WTO dispute resolution proceedings explore and apply some of the principles discussed in this module:

Joined Cases C-92/92 and C-326/92, Phil Collins v Imtrat Handelsgesellschaft mbH; Patricia Im-und Export Verwaltungsgesellschaft mbH and Another v EMI Electrola GmbH (1993)((.link_red)) (Applicability of the EEC Treaty to IP rights)

Sarah E. Henry, "The First International Challenge to U.S. Copyright Law: What Does the WTO Analysis of 17 U.S.C. § 110(5) Mean to the Future of International Harmonization of Copyright Laws Under the TRIPS Agreement?," 20 Penn State International Law Review 301 (2001).((.link_green)) (EU vs. US)

Jan Bohanes & Adrian Emch, "WTO Panel Report on China IPR: A Mixed Result," China Law & Practice, pp. 19-20, March 2009((.link_red)) (US vs. China)

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